1. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM): SEM is a technique used to obtain high-resolution images of a sample's surface by scanning it with a focused beam of electrons. This method is commonly used to study the topography and morphology of materials at a micro or nano scale. 2. X-ray diffraction (XRD): XRD is a technique used to analyze the crystalline structure of materials by measuring the diffraction pattern produced when a sample is exposed to X-rays. This method is often used to determine the composition and crystallographic properties of materials. 3. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR): FTIR is a technique used to analyze the molecular structure of materials by measuring the absorption of infrared light at various wavelengths. This method is commonly used to identify functional groups, chemical bonds, and impurities in samples. 4. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS): EDS is a technique used in conjunction with SEM to analyze the elemental composition of materials by measuring the characteristic X-rays emitted when a sample is bombarded with electrons. This method is often used to map the distribution of elements in a sample and identify unknown compounds. 5. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA): TGA is a technique used to analyze the thermal stability and composition of materials by measuring changes in mass as a sample is heated or cooled. This method is commonly used to study the decomposition, oxidation, and moisture content of materials. 6. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC): DSC is a technique used to analyze the thermal properties of materials by measuring changes in heat flow as a sample is heated or cooled. This method is often used to determine melting points, glass transition temperatures, and specific heat capacities of materials.